A Summary of UN Handbook on Gender Training

In the topic, WHY GENDER MATTERS, METHOLOGY, the proper approaches to Peace Support Operations is captured clearly. Any personnel engaged in Peace Support Operations should be at home with them in order to achieve an effective result.There is a strong need for the personnel to understand the interconnecting strands that underlines the military, political, economic and social life of the community of the operations in order to improve relation with members.   Understanding that communities consist of different people with different needs and priorities will help the personnel to improve on the planning of responses thus facilitating overall achievement of mission target. In all,   an increased level of sustainable peace should be the target.Furthermore, the FOUR CASE STUDIES open up vistas on the need for enlightenment. The Iraq case study shows that in order to save life, there is the need to recognise women's roles and responsibilities in a crisis situation. Men alone could not have been assigned to distribute food items.Also the rights of the community of operations should be protected as seen in the Cambodian case study. Peacekeeping missions should avoid creating negative atmosphere in the host communities by laying down clear policies and practices based on respect for human rights. Similarly, for effective conditions for peace and stability to be created, no organisation should be overlooked. For instance, after 28 yrs of violence and ethnic conflict, Sudanese women came together to stop the violence through a peace conference which is a non-violent approach to inter-tribal conflict.This shows the fact that women's organisations are also key to establishing peace and should not be overlooked. The fourth case study throws more light on enhancing the people's ability to deal with crisis and rebuilding society. It goes further to state that women and men feel and participate in conflict differently.Their experiences have a role to play in post war era. F or instance in Colombia, many rural communities had a lot of examples wherein women were restricted to the houses, men did all the running around. The implication   is that in the case of eventual displacement to urban areas, the women survived more with their skills than men. The women turned their domestic skills into jobs.Note that during crises or wars, gender perspective must be applied to the Peace Support Operations. There is the need to understand what gender perspective does and does not involve in such Peace Support Operations. While women should not be focused on exclusively, there is need to look at the inequalities and differences between women and men. That will enable resources, which focus on women's peculiar needs, to be mapped out. Also the operation does not concern itself with treating women only as a vulnerable group.There is the need to note that any of the genders can be harmed. However, women need not be reduced to victims. Peacekeeping must consider the in equalities and differences between women and men thereby structuring resources to that effect. This will enable an easy check on overall impact of the intervention strategies.Again, the PSO should note that men and women differ in their thinking   and should not focus only on employment equity issues within organisations rather should recognises that equal opportunities for women within organisations is only one aspect of a concern for gender equality. A criticism to this is that there is no clear way of measuring the amount of attention given to women. It may be over done.In FILLING THE GAPS: A VIRTUAL DISCUSSION ON GENDER, PEACE AND SECURITY RESEARCH, ten key recommendations were made by   90 academics and research professional drawn from across various fields in Oct 2008, The dialogued for three weeks.Their recommendations bothered basically on identifying gaps in gender, peace and security research and efforts to fill up such lacunae through effective research methods and to ols. However, the group should clearly understand that there is often a wide gap between theories or research and practical life situations. While life is larger than logic, all efforts are always geared towards bridging that.There is a link between feminism, militarism and human right. It could be extrapolated from the laid out facts in the four treated topics. While every human being deserves his/her fundamental human rights and privileges, that of the women folk should not be viewed from any less spectrum at all. Military officials, who are often peacekeepers in conflict zones, should learn to uphold the human rights of member of their host communities with an eye not to look down on women in any bit.Cases have shown where women are receiving inhuman or less treatment from them.   Designed peace and reconstruction programmes must show that women are not just mere entities but participants in such communities.

Communication Actitivy Essay

As a new auditor for the CPA firm of Croix, Marais, and Kale, you have been assigned to review the internal controls over mail cash receipts of Manhattan Company. Your review reviews the following: checks are promptly endorsed â€Å"For Deposits Only†, but no list of the checks is prepared by the person opening the mail. The mail is opened either by the cashier or by the employee who maintains the accounts receivable records. Mail receipts are deposited in the bank weekly by the cashier. Instructions: Write a letter to Jerry Mays, owner of the Manhattan company explaining the weaknesses in internal control and your recommendations for improving the system. Mr. Jerry Mays Manhattan Company Dear Mr. Mays RE: INDENTIFICATION OF WEAKNESSES IN INTERNAL CONTROLS As your newly appointed auditors, Croix, Marais, and Kale (â€Å"CMK† or â€Å"we†) are mandated by the scope of our contract to review the internal controls over mail cash receipts (the â€Å"process†) of Manhattan Company (the â€Å"Company†). As part of the review, we will also provide some recommendations for improving any identified weaknesses in the internal control system of the Company. The review of the process identified the following, which we will classify as weaknesses in the internal control of the system: * Although checks are promptly endorsed â€Å"For Deposit Only†, no list of the checks is prepared by the person opening the mail; * Mail is opened by the cashier or by the employee who maintains the accounts receivable records; and * Mail receipts are deposited in the bank weekly by the cashier For each of the aforementioned, we will provide an explanation of the weakness as well as our recommendations for improvement. The checks endorsed, as â€Å"For Deposit Only† is a very good internal control mechanism. The endorsement is restrictive and reduces the likelihood that someone could divert the check for personal use, as banks will not give individual cash when presented with a check that has this type of endorsement. However, a weakness of the process lies in the fact that no duplicate of the list of the checks that are received is prepared by the person opening the mail. This is an example of a document procedure flaw in the process and an  internal control weakness. Without the preparation of a duplicate list as well as signing for the receipt of the checks, there is no trace that the event of receipt of the checks has occurred. By requiring signatures and preparing a duplicate list of the checks, the Company can identify the individual responsible for the event. To this internal control weakness, we would recommend the establishment of responsibility, where only a designated person – a mail receipt clerk will be authorized to handle checks received via mail. The mail receipt clerk should prepare in duplicate, a list of the checks received each day and sign the list to establish responsibility for the receipt of the data. As part of the process, the original copy of the list, along with the checks should be sent to the cashier’s department for the preparation of the daily cash summary. Additionally, the mail receipt clerk should send a copy of the list to the treasurer’s office, if there is one for reconciliation purposes with the daily cash summary. As mentioned above, we observed that the mail is opened by the cashier or by the employee who maintains the accounts receivable records. This is a flaw in the internal control of the process related to the segregation of duties or separation of function. The cashier’s office is responsible for the preparation of the daily cash summary and thus should not be the same person opening the mail of cash receipts, which is a related activity. Different individuals should be responsible for any related activity. A dishonest cashier can understate the recording of the mail cash receipts and report a different amount on the daily cash summary for personal benefits. Accordingly, we would recommend the establishment of responsibility, where only a designated person – a mail receipt clerk will be authorized to handle checks received via mail. Additionally, we recommend the segregation of duties, where different individuals receive the mail cash, record the receipts and hold the cash. This will ensure that different individuals are responsible for any related activity and that the responsibility for record keeping for the cash is separate from the physical custody of the cash. Finally, we also observed that the cashier deposits mail receipts in the bank weekly. The internal storage of cash on the premises of the Company is not advisable for obvious reasons- theft, robbery, and unauthorized access. Employees with other intentions can alert external cohorts to raid or rob the Company at night or at another time to gain access to the cash stored on  the premises. Additionally, the storage of the cash on the premises presents a â€Å"working hazard† for the employees as outsiders wanting to gain access to the cash may subject them to unwanted raids. The use of a bank on a daily basis contributes significantly to good internal control over cash. The company can safeguard the cash on a daily basis by using a bank as a depository and thus minimizing the amount of currency that the Company has on hand at any point in time during the week. Additionally, the use of the bank on the daily basis facilitates the control of cash because it creates a double record of all bank transactions – one by the Company and one by the bank. Also we recommend that all receipts be deposited in the bank on a daily basis versus the current practice of weekly deposits. In summary, if management implements the above recommendations, the Company will be in a better position to safeguard its assets from employee theft, robbery, and unauthorized use. Additionally, the company’s accounting records will be enhanced in its accuracy and reliability as a result of the reduction in the risk of errors and irregularities. We are available to further discuss with Company management and hope that the recommendations will be implemented as soon as practicable. We look forward to working with management on this initiative. Reference Weygandt, J. J., Kimmel, P. D., & Kieso, D. E. (2008). Financial accounting: 2010 custom edition (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

E-Marketing in Amazon Company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

E-Marketing in Amazon Company - Essay Example The company has always been a traditional e-commerce company that ships items around the globe. The sudden insurgency of moving towards e-marketing and making items available digitally as downloads for customers. Amazon wants to stick to the traditional method of marketing and selling but also enter e-marketing without having any adverse effects on the company taken along. They are still testing the new idea and taking it slow to avoid fatal problems in order to easily bounce back in case of any failures. This strategy of taking it slowly is a rational approach by Amazon because a hasty entry might have a negative effect on the company since its loyal customers might have rebelled. If they take it slowly then customers will be able to adopt it gradually and also that they have both the options available for their customers and they can make a choice. It is important for any company to stick to their original values and set standards but change is essential only when it is taken at a pace that is suitable for all stakeholders of a firm to accept and adapt to it. This is what makes an entry strategy successful since customers are essential and must be taken along to implement a change successfully. The partners and competitors of the company have great expectations out of Amazon since they believe that Amazon will soon come up with its own website offering music downloads for an amount of money and also that they will sell an e-book device under the Amazon brand by the name.... They are still developing as an e-marketing firm and moving steadily to their desired destination. Critical evaluation the market entry strategy Amazon entered the market with the acquisition of mobipockets.com which is based in Paris. Amazon adopted a hush hush attitude towards the acquisition of the company that is now its subsidiary that sells products digitally online. It provides books online as a download for some amount of money. But the amount of money is naturally lesser than the traditional way of selling goods over the internet. Amazon has also introduced its Unbox movie-download which was built in-house by the company in 2006. Amazon decided not to advertise this entry into e-marketing for certain reasons. The company has always been a traditional e-commerce company that ships items around the globe. The sudden insurgency of moving towards e-marketing and making items available digitally as downloads for customers. Amazon wants to stick to the traditional method of marketing and selling but also enter e-marketing without having any adverse effects on the company. They are still testing the new idea and taking it s low to avoid fatal problems in order to easily bounce back in case of any failures. This strategy of taking it slowly is a rational approach by Amazon because a hasty entry might have a negative effect on the company since its loyal customers might have rebelled. If they take it slowly then customers will be able to adopt it gradually and also that they have both the options available for their customers and they can make a choice. It is important for any company to stick to their original values and set standards but change is essential only when it is taken at a pace that is suitable for all stakeholders of a firm to accept and adapt to

Corporate Financial Management ( CORPORATE GOVERNANCE) Essay

Corporate Financial Management ( CORPORATE GOVERNANCE) - Essay Example firms reflected on the inability of the managers to ensure that the overall governance mechanism was well placed within the organizations to ensure their stability and compliance with the rules and regulations. Thus normally, the focus is on the managers for corporate governance ignoring the fact that there are various power structures as well as stakeholders within the organization who can effectively dominate the corporate governance process. The role of institutional investors as well as active shareholders has therefore become more prominent after the collapse of large institutions and now they actively take part in the board meetings etc. Large investors such as institutional investors therefore play a critical role also and one of the fundamental questions to be asked as to how to achieve the balance between those two power structures of the organization to ensure corporate governance process to take its deeper roots. Thus â€Å"the fundamental issue concerning corporate gover nance seems to be how to In order to properly discuss the above statement, it is critical that a comprehensive overview of the theoretical attempts made so far to discuss and originate the concept of corporate governance is discussed. One of the most potent theories that outline the potential conflict between the roles of managers and shareholders is agency theory. The birth of the modern corporate required that there must be separation between the ownership and control of the organization. This was done with fundamental aim of taking advantage of the skill level of others who can perform the job of managing the corporate in better manner as compared to the owners.(Igor& Deborah,2010). Agency theory basically attempts to study the nexus of different resource holders of the firm. Accordingly, a firm is just viewed as a contract between the different resource holders of the firm however, the arrangement of agency arises when principal (mostly shareholders) delegate some power and duties

Thomas Jeffersons two terms in office Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Thomas Jeffersons two terms in office - Essay Example Thomas Jefferson’s two terms in office Washington had constraint the operations of the judiciary to deliver justice to all Americans by allowing it to be overly influenced by federalists. Jefferson succeeded in eliminating federal influences in the judiciary by making the Supreme Court independence. The independence of the judiciary was a critical aspect in America’s rise to a justly state. His intention to repeal the 1801 Judiciary Act, remove judges untrustworthy judges from office, and eliminate district courts from the judicial structure were motivated by his intention to see an efficient and effective judicial system that functions within the budgeted expenditures (Bailey, 2001). He also ensured that the executives operate within the constitutional frameworks and are non-partisan in their actions as this was critical to America’s growth. Additionally, Jefferson was committed to strengthening the nation’s economy through elimination of debt and superfluous taxes that were deemed offensive and unreasonably burdened struggling Americans. He saw a ballooning national debt as a cesspool of bigoted patronage (Denson, 2001). Unlike Washington, Jefferson believed that the nation could build foreign credit without carrying a huge national debt. However, I believe that his misdoing came in during the Louisiana Purchase when he candidly violated his powers and borrowed gold from England only to reimburse with treasury bonds which particularly increased the state’s external debt as it is equaled to debt.

Land Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Land Law - Essay Example Therefore, it is important to now that Under (Law of Property Act 1925 s 199(1)(ii)(a)), the occupant(s) of the property have major interests ‘since it is implicit in Williams & Glyn’s Bank v Boland [1981] AC 487, Midland Bank v Dobson [1986] 1 FLR 171 and Lloyds Bank v Rosset [1991] 1 AC 107 that the beneficial interest (of the third parties) under this trust precedes the court order’ (Milney, 1997). It is an important consideration that belief involved in proprietary estoppel cases can be in any rights in and over the property. Tom, another third party, through a properly executed deed, was given exclusive possession over a cottage in the property for a period of six years. In simpler words, the said cottage was given on lease to Tom by the sole registered owner, Simon. The deed is a legal contact between the two parties with specified terms and conditions. The contractual obligations are legally binding on the two parties. When the property is transferred or sold to another person, the liabilities and other encumbrances, unless discounted, are also carried forward, without affecting the rights of the people, especially those who are leased part of the property through proper legal deals. According to LRA 2002(c.9) Section 12(8), ‘registration with possessory title has the same effect as registration with absolute title, except that it does not affect the enforcement of any estate, right or interest adverse to, or in derogation of, the proprietor’s title subsisting at the time of registration or then capable of arising’ (www.opsi.gov.uk). Simon had also given right of way over his driveway to his neighbour Nora, for ‘as long as you live’. This law of easement primarily provides a right to use a piece of land by the neighbours for performing specific functions. The most popular easement is ‘right to

Does North Korea's Nuclear Program Pose an Immediate Threat to the U.S Research Paper

Does North Korea's Nuclear Program Pose an Immediate Threat to the U.S - Research Paper Example Thus, it is believed that North Korea’s nuclear program posed a threat to US interests in East Asia, especially to the America people. Its economy was a mess, and its significant source of income was a sale of missiles. Reasons why the North Korea’s nuclear program poses an immediate threat to the U.S United State government pre nuclear test evaluation of the threats emanating from the North Korea nuclear weapons was shaped by various strategies. Fuqua (124) indicate that the Bush administration considered a North Korea nuclear weapons capability as a fact. This suggestion reflected the view of the U.S intelligence community that had been assessed in past years that North Korea possessed one or two nuclear weapons. Meanwhile, U.S intelligence services that concluded in 2003 ascertain that North Korea had mastered the technology to build functional nuclear weapons without having to legalize the technology via nuclear tests. The Bush administration did not recognize the p ossibility of the North Korea nuclear arms as a direct threat to united state. Because the officials had concluded that the Korea lacked the capability to deliver any nuclear bombs it might posses to U.S territory. Fuqua (121) indicates that the Pyongyang did not have a successful, tested long variety ballistic missile at its disposal that would reach the Americas. However, it is believed that, the Korea was still far away from being capable to build a miniaturized nuclear warhead for the missile territory. The North Korea’s massive traditional military was a threat to Japan and South Korea deterred a preventive attack from the United States, and its regional friends regardless of the Korean nuclear weapons. From the strategies, the U.S used, the Korea was capable to pose a threat to its territory because of the threat of proliferation of nuclear weapons and fissile substance used. Lack of the perception of a direct contact to Korea nuclear caused threat to the United State. The transfer, of complete nuclear devices of fissile material to terrorist and other prominent states was a considerable threat to the U.S security emanating from the North’s nuclear weapons programs. According to Schneider (230), administration strategies used by U.S was a failure because it reflected the terrorism attack of 9/11 that was fueled by tangible evidence for Korea missile cooperation with Iran and Syria. Meanwhile, it provided evidence that Pyongyang’s extensive illicit networks had already entertained contacts to smuggling rings for material s and components for WMD. Schneider (256) indicates that the Bush administration managed to deal with the treat of North Korea nuclear transfers through a comprehensive deterrence strategy. However, the U.S declaratory policy addressed to Pyongyang remained underdeveloped before the Korea’s nuclear test because Bush team doubted the possibility to set a clear red line to Pyongyang. Therefore, Bush team is on re cord statement to discourage Korea proliferation activities that resulted low response by the secretary of state Colin Powel in the interview, in 2002. When asked if the U.S administration would let North Korea transfer weapons he said that the problem was a red line that needed to be closed positively. The Powell’s declaratory statement toward the Pyongyang reflected the preoccupation of the Bush administ

International Financial Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Financial Markets - Essay Example The development and the growing trend of the market are subdivided and depicted with the aid of graphs and charts for analytical review. Obstacles hindering the smooth growth are also dealt with in the paper. International Financial Markets collectively represents the total international trade and transaction in the foreign exchange market, international capital or foreign exchange basically refers to an over-the-counter (OTC) market, focusing on international currency trade. (Nature of foreign exchange, 2007) The whole scenario of international trade comprising of imports and exports and the flow of international capital is carried out through the Foreign exchange market. (Foreign Exchange in Economics, 2007) International exchange market is the largest global market place in regard to the monetary value traded, also includes international interbank trading, the exchange between central banks, multinational corporations and other international level speculators. The estimated average current global trade rate exceeds US$1.9 trillion/day. (Foreign Exchange Market, 2007) The foreign exchange market is the place where trading of currencies takes place. The foreign exchange market proclaims to be the largest and most volatile market all over the globe. Under the foreign exchange, foreign currency is used for trading and the trade takes place between nations. Price list for the goods or services imported or exported items between countries etc. gets its cash value established from the foreign exchange trade. 'Bank drafts, bills of exchange, bankers' acceptances, and letters of credit' etc., could be exchanged at previously agreed rates for settlement of debts. This results in the accumulation of currency surplus, received by way of loan repayments, import-export trade guaranteeing etc., done by the foreign exchange market for its customers. (Foreign exchange in economics, 2007)

Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 82

Journal - Essay Example promised to withdraw all troops from Afghanistan, and those who were to remain were only to be involved in training the Afghanistan soldiers, and not actively helping them in combat missions as the new deal states. Therefore, this makes the story even more controversial, and the writers are seeking audience with Americans to give their opinion on the issue. Moreover, the authors seem to condemn the move, which makes the story bias. Since the involvement of US troops in Afghanistan is an issue that has been debated for years, I would expect the authors to give a little background into the matter. However, the article falls short of any background information regarding the issue. Nevertheless, the authors use quotes from a senior US administrative official, which makes what they report credible. They also refer to an article on Times talking about the same story, and since Times is a reputable newspaper, it gives the story further credibility. Overall, the story is well presented, organized, and easy to

Ralph Ellisons essay An Extravagance of Laughter Essay Example for Free

Ralph Ellisons essay An Extravagance of Laughter Essay Ralph Ellison in his essay, An Extravagance of Laughter demonstrated the living condition of black life in the segregated 1930s. Ellison grew up in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Unfortunately, His father past away when he was only three. He lived with his mother and brother in absolute poverty, but always believe that he could overcome the limits of racial prejudice. Throughout the years, Ellison fell in love with Africa-American music (Jazz). He played Trumpet and thought himself Louis Armstrong solos. For Ellison and many other blacks in the south, personal choice (privileges) was something they were lacking. He states, you lived in a Negro neighborhood because you were forced to do so, and because you preferred living among those of your own background. Which was easy to answer, because having to experience life in a mixed neighborhood as a child, I preferred to live where people spoke my own version of the American Language; and where misreading of the tone or gesture were less likely to ignite literal conflict (Ellison 145). By this, people did not have any choice about where they live. At times, They preferred to live among those of their own background just because they did not want to deal with inferiority. Imagine living in a place were you were not wanted, and where people were aggravating you and your family from day to day. People really do not want to deal with negative attitudes and they certainly will not live around it. Many people believe its more comfortable to live around people with the same background as they are. By doing so, its easier to understand each others view about a certain point. Not only they were forced to live in places they did not want to live; public transportation was places of hallucinations for Negroes. Once their fares were deposited, they were sent straight to the rear. During such time, both the driver and white folks tormented them. Imagine the type of pushing and shoveling that occurred. Such dramatic and inconsiderate attitude can cause horrible effects on a pregnant woman. Getting push on a moving bus is very dangerous. After all the disappointments in the south, an old hero and friend, Langston Hughes invited Ellison, to be his guest at a Broadway theater. The play, Jack Kirklands dramatization of Erskine Caldwells famous novel Tobacco Road left a great impression on him. The comedy and the extravagance of laughter told Ellison many things about himself. I couldnt have put it into words at the time, but by forcing me to see the comedy in Jeeter Lesters Condition and allowing me to react to it in an interracial situation without the threat of physical violence, Caldwell told me something important about who I was (Ellison 171). As we can see, the author was in a safe house and he mentioned how the play made him a better person, and how he became a more tolerant American. The play helped him to deal with the horrible experiences that he encountered in the south. In the south, there were no contests because the white man always won; where as in the north, survival of the fittest was the issue. It gave him a chance to redeem his self-dignity. The moment of laughter was the point when a change occurred in Ellisons life. He produced a new drama in the theater when he started laughing. Once his laughing got going, it was a germ that affected many people. This play allowed Ellison to understand his role in the American society. By doing so, it helped him to remember the important part, which is not to think about racism, but to think about race in conjunction to the south, and New York. Ellisons experience in learning to be a New Yorker was something he never forgets. He states, Madam, all you had to do was risk the slight possibility that I just might be a gentleman. Because if you had, I would have been compelled to step aside (Ellison 144). From this quote, we can all see the meaning into the authors words. In the south, it would be required for a black person to get up and offer their seat to a white one. Nevertheless, They were in New York, and Laws did not recommend such thing. The lady got herself into a shuffle with him and fortunately he won. Its that aggressiveness that caused Ellison to retaliate and not offer her the seat. For Ellison, The notion of imagined communities (Benedict Anderson) as Pratt says came about his experiences. This illustrated the inner self-esteem that he had to reach within himself to bring out to society. He gathered up all his experiences from the south and those he acquired from  New York to stand up for himself and not to let society destroy it. One way to connect Pratts observation about the contact zone and safe houses with Ellisons feeling that he was on a journey without a map is to connect both authors points of view, and how they tried to persuade their readers. Ellison States, This made for a constant struggle over the nature of reality, in which each group probed and sparred as they tried to determined the others true motives and opinions (Ellison 160). This quote indicates that people should drop their mask and try to put their differences aside to connect with one another. We must retrieve our logical inspiration, and break the barriers of stupidity. In her essay, Arts of the Contact Zone, Pratt observed how society must get rid of racism, and destroys the shadow of ignorance. She states, meanwhile, our job in the American course remains to figure out how to make that crossroad the best site for learning that it can be (Pratt 541). She demonstrated many ways to develop social and intellectual differences. She stressed the importance of what we came to call safe house, which are places that groups can constitute as communities. Pratt stated the way to comprehend communication and behavior is through common rules that must be shared. She mentioned how different personalities interpret a common rule. In her essay, Guaman Pomas unread masterpiece and Benedict Andersons theory of imagine communities demonstrated her argument. These examples are part of what someone should strongly focus on to understand their cultures as well as others. As both authors Stated, Our position in relation to the issue of contact, safety, mapping and community is very important. First, Ellison mentioned, And just as Henry James felt it prudent to warn Americans against a superstitious elevation of Europe, Negro folklore with its arrays of survival strategies warned me against an overvaluation of white pretensions. And despite their dominance and low opinion of Negro intelligence, white suspected the presence of profound reservations even when Negroes were far less assertive than they are today (Ellison 160).  Throughout this essay, Its clear that racism played a big part throughout society. The above statement mentioned how whites were looking down at Negroes. Even with their greatest efforts, Negroes were still underestimated.

Types of African Feminism

Types of African Feminism The primary reason for the difference in the African feminism and Western feminism is the fact that it has developed in a different cultural context. In todays ever changing world, African women are diligently trying to redefine their roles in ways so that they can make themselves more receptive and carve out an activism which is more aware of the culture. This is not an entirely unforeseen challenge, since the taboos of gender hierarchy, the status of female being always ancillary, and their struggle to carve out a niche for themselves within traditional African culture has been prevalent since ever. The types of African feminism which emanated in various parts across the continent do not grow out of eccentricity within the context of industrial societies which is in contrast with the western feminism. In the West, economic and social inclination historically caused the women into leading more active roles in the economy, and feminism prevalent in west has always given more preference to womens struggle for control over merely an entity for reproduction and sexuality. However, the experience for African women has been different since ever. The debates on African feminism do not focus on theoretical questions, the female body, or sexual identity. Rather, like many of its Third World counterparts, African feminism is distinctly heterosexual, supportive of motherhood, and focused on issues of bread, butter, culture, and power. The issue of clitoridectomy which is practice in Africa and with some tribes it is practiced as a ritual is one that African women are whole heartedly working to resolve. African women are now trying to investigate new ways to inculcate their own views of womens development into African development principles and the non government organizations as well. Since the early nineties, the effects of national policies on women have been highly critized by the women leaders from both inside and outside of government. The women of Africa had to pay a heavy price for their criticism of the national policies where the political leaders and the military victimized them by disrupting the demonstrations, the markets were burnt and some of the women were also jailed and thats not it, they were also forced out of the public positions to curb this menace. However these hardships of reformation in economic structure and democrization have inspired them towards greater courage in raising their voice a gainst the distress and focusing attention on womens status within their societies. Although present African literary criticism is a result of the influence from the west, assessment and the evaluation which are relevant to the African encounter must be stemmed from methods native to African art traditions. The vitality reflected in African life today arises from the traditional consciousness which entrench the arts in all forms of life. In pre-colonial Africa, this intricate relationship exhibited a ceaseless search for ways to improve contemporary condition and wedged creativity in all areas of life. Colonial impact promoted disconnection from African traditional reality and existence which ultimately lead into cultural, social, political and other forms of disjoints. According to Ngugi wa Thiongo, the involuntary extrication from familiar ways of knowing was recorded in narrative form: There is a well known story amongst the crowd that the Mubia told the people to shut their eyes in prayer, and when later they opened their eyes, the land was taken. Significantly, parts of the new account of events and experiences emphasized on African peoples extrication from traditional land and arts. As a result, African literature began early to investigate the changing aspects of present African existence and the literary criticism was set out of action in the exploration of the explicit expressions of the new, script oriented legacy. Further, the colonial education system omitted the woman resulting in her social, cultural and political disarticulation in the new indulgence. Her ensuing silence has yet to be taken care of in present African experience. The scarcity of African literary genres that reinforce the African womans involvement in the recreation and upkeep of the vision of large social group provides evidence of her silencing and evident faintness in Africas encounter with the West. Her involvement is more manifested in the postcolonial arena. Although the African writers did not keep her out from the emerging culture that overwhelmed African experience for a mostly exterior audience, her depiction became challenging in the present setting which prepared rules for her partaking in the new indulgence. This seems a small issue except that the duty of reaffirming the African womans existence was left to educated western African men who, themselves, were insufficiently engraved in the new dispensation. Held back with the duty for self-repossession and the risk of a lost native land, a substantial number of early writers visibly enunciated the African male. For quite a long phase, depictions of the African female in this period after colonialism reverberated with the idea of community and or the female principle. While most post-independent Africans are acquainted of the vitality of art in African society, that understanding however is hardly ever used to substitute the new African narrative agenda in compliance with traditional customs. This is because of the fact that an accession of the colonial experience pre requisites that most elements within familial inheritance be re theorize as obstructions to creativity and advancement. As a result, most of the present narratives re-inspect the known African world or find the rediscovered terrain defined by the colonial conflict. Recipient of conditions of underdevelopment-already-in-progress, they admit the violence of the contemporary African city with its bright lights that disguise corruption and immorality. And, such acceptance deduces harmony with a modern African state. Such a result is at odds with the extensive belief that African ways of knowing emphasize on the dominance of community because it takes for granted a narrative vision that depicts characters whose experiences are non-important to societal objectives and goals. This study of the African woman pursues to go beyond current pressures to normalize the hardship and disagreement in the African womans experience. Rather than assisting her full domestic and international involvement, such pressures obstruct her and slows down the African advancement. A brief survey of some existing viewpoints in present African literature will exemplify what I mean here. An established view in African literary criticism is entrenched in the need to carve out a niche for the female African writer and critic within the present literary tradition. This methodology stems out of the years of silence and struggle that many African women scholars experienced in the academic arena. Many African women scholars were against the silencing which seemed backed up by a male-dominated African literary criticism. In theory, activist feminism is of the belief that only the African woman can persuasively explore her experience. This school strives for authentication of the African woman through in-depth assessment of other exclusionary traditions. Subscribers also agree that: African feminist condemnation is definitely engaged criticism in much the same way as enlightened African literary condemnation grapples with decolonization and feminist criticism with the politics of male literary supremacy. Though most followers believe that for African feminists, the double commitment to womens liberation and African emancipation becomes one, they find that Negritude, for example, was unreasonable in making romantic and mythic images of the African woman. Also, the African male writer and/or critics praise of African motherhood is seen as domineering and unpleasant because their expressed views agree to other prescribed female role which is at the core of most African poetry. However, this schools line of reasoning ignores the fact that the creation of mythic African womanhood is corresponding with the proposition that the African womans world be seen through her own eyes. By assuming an approach to liberation that is universal in scope or nature, African liberation and African womens freedom, this route evokes a glorification of the African woman with mountains on her back. It uses a post colonialist feminist notion that asks for a conceptual filter of inclusion by exclusion, to set up hindrances similar to those whose removal remains part of its plan. But stated assurance to the cause of the African womans emancipation is usually present as a major concern. Significant analyses supports an argumentative research programmed that comprehend the African womans emancipation as a struggle against non-feminists, perceived archconservative and men. Borrowing from activist acclimatized believes, this research programmed readdress the African womans world for her, setting boundaries that are based on what she must see rather than on her reality. However, this school agrees to the existence of pockets of power which allowed women by identifying characteristics of womens involvement in decision-making institutions within traditional African communities. Generally, it faults all men for keeping power to themselves and, in particular, African men for not belittling and incapacitating African traditions that seek the continuation of oppressive roles for the African woman. Missionary Feminism: This school of thought uses a more ethical route. Some characteristics of feminist awareness ground the thinking of most believers. One of its earliest expounder was Amanda Berry Smith, a 19th century African American missionary in Africa. Part of her report on African women presents most of the issues that current missionary feminists deal with and deserves quoting in detail. Account is filled with the usual stories of barbaric morals, the art practices of a witch and the darkness projected for non-Christians. Within her narrative, her own rights to conduct the religious worship to the Bishop is not considered domineering because the Bishop needed her services and the backward natives were too uninformed to eat by the clock. Unable to recognize herself as a returning native, Smith fails to see that the sword-carrying African male walking ahead and his troubled wife are both victims of slave raids that demanded able-bodied African men to defend women and children from invaders of African bodies for the trans-Atlantic slave dealings. Continued narrow-minded reading of this African family caravan is based on the evidence that armor-wearing and glorious-white-horse-riding men are gallant, non-African innovations while cutlass or spear-carrying African men are ancient and domineering. In other words, cutlass or spear-carrying men cannot? Safe guard or protect women or children in misery. But this way of looking at Africa is contemporary. For example, in Alice Walkers The Color Purple, Netie is both preacher and social critic in fictional Olinka and echo prevailing US views of Africa and African women. Also, Walkers holding the Secret of Joy encompass this burden of social criticism on-behalf-of tyrannized African womanhood into the area of activism in creative writing. As per the narrative objectives of Walkers works, African women are either intrinsically incapable of seeing the degree of their own subjugation or they lack required impartiality in their thoughts and writings about it. Among the works of African-born women writers, Buchi Emechetas writings best demonstrate this school of thought. This approach intends to readdress the African woman toward a better way of life. It explores issues like the cruelty of polygamy; the irrational anticipation of mothers who cannot bear to see their daughters choose different lifestyles; the incapability of the modern African woman to decide about feminist ideas and attitudes and, of course, FGM which stands for female genital mutilation. It persuades by promising to put African women at the centre and realization through the expression of the discrimination they experience in fictional form. Using the consciousness raising approach, it induces the need for a crucial union of westernized, feminist and African culture. Crucial to this school of ideology is the idea of the African womans transformation into a self sufficient, independent individual. However, her independence requires the nullification of African conception of sharing and community because these bind the woman to tradition. It calls for new kind of sharing involving favorable reception of the West and western feminist ideals which indicates alteration to a new equality. Drastically there is usually no proposal to western women to share western cultural customs with African women or their own Africanized sisters. Those who follow the ideology of this school assume the African past is predictable and malicious and they seem amazed at the African womans incapability to cope in a transitional society that lacks independence and access to self-authentication mechanisms at the international level. Efforts to validate supportive traditional structures are perceived as lack of creativity and emerging romanticism. Also, challenge for the African woman involved in the conversion process is the classification of the present African male as a modern man who is yet distinct from modern men. Publication in African languages is seen as confining access to African womens works, and the knowledge of a European language envisage resourcefulness. Typical of this approach, recommendations command continued burden of traditional restrictions that control womens behaviors. Although usually involved in issues of womens growth, the missionary feminists evaluation is not suggestive about which cultures constraints should guide behavior; but it is never ambiguous about the benefits of European language choices. Given the complicated relationships between language and culture, the proposition that local advancement is improved through publication in English or other European languages demands precise responses to the postcolonial knowledge. Focusing interest on the perceptual distances created between Africans by slavery and colonialism, this approach also maintains a secessionist vision that refuses to acknowledge African progress on both sides of the Atlantic. Its continuing elicitation of Africa as the Dark Continent and accusation of people of the African Diaspora as dreamers of needless, if not impossible, dreams is a test to African and African Diaspora scholarship, unity and advancement. Given this schools missionary center of attention, statements like African societys narrow-mindedness of ones right to choose ones fate rather than consider the common good. Create a quandary for the would-be African missionary feminist. Also when interpretation like the following are offered as admissions of limited feminist realization or indicators of retarded progress, it becomes hard to question these same assertions as legitimate indicators for the relegation of African American women in highly developed countries like the United Nations. Whether it is the cruelty of polygamy, African-descended womens rape and exploitation in United States slavery, or current ceilings on the African feminists hope, it will be easier said than done to use the masters tools to take to pieces the masters house. Despite our annoyance with history, all African-descended women are accountable for the expansion of research programmed that is receptive to the unique locations we dwell in. In the final investigation, the missionary feminists plan does not state publicly the West as a haven for the knowledgeable, optimistic and tradition-free, contemporary African woman. That is the dare for all women of African descent. Opposing to this school of thought, the new African woman is not an fragmentary version of the western feminist. If, as Audre Lordeimply, growth does not depend on a western-based adaptation agenda, then transcendence of existing subjugation must not mean that the present-day African woman will be better-off in a customized col onialism. Neo-colonial Feminism: Colonialisms exclusion of African womanhood, the all-encompassing ambivalence regarding postcolonial thematic constructs, and the ruthless reality of present-day Africas snail-paced financial growth all create unique troubles for the growth of research agenda on the African woman. Identifying locations for revolutionize and new methods of endurance in the postcolonial state are the chief focal point of this school. Questioning the modern African womans views of alteration, some concerns of this school lie on top with those of missionary feminism; but some of the methods are analogous to those employed by activist feminism. This school points out the African womans need of development in refined idea and action, insisting that adjustment to changing norms must be accompanied by accomplishment of power within the changing society. Changes in the domestic ground and the work place are emphasized. Hardly ever challenging, neocolonialist feminism focuses on the African womans sense of her identity. As result, the major targets are her thoughts and awareness of security in African constructions of comprehension. This approach exposes enunciation of established bases of the postcolonial womans achievements and makes her inability to exploit the resulting negated the reason for seeking advancement. Circumscribing her through the discharge and omission of ideas that authenticate her points of origin, this school makes it hard to develop present-day economic and ideological markets that hold up the African womans intellectual products. Even though neo-colonialist feminist idea acknowledges this weak market, it argues that the present-day African womans advancement depends on her exclusion from the encouraging background of African ways of knowing. Rather than accept that the western educated African has evolved the capability to include two or more cultures, neo-colonialist feminist thought maintains that such aptitude predicts the lack of a important African worldview. An argument of this nature precludes the odds that pre-colonial African thought is open to ideas about womens self-sufficiency, and concludes that feminism is far-off to the African womans experience. Key fraction of the neo-colonialist feminisms call to the African female is established on the expression of the nonexistence of an autonomous point of view about women in the works of male authors. As a strategy, this approach encourages removal of the African woman from the African base by isolating women writers works through the implication that their successes are beyond African mens. Writers like Aidoo, Sutherland have made distinguishing offerings to the genres in which they work Aidoo in the short story, Sutherland in the play, in the novel. They have managed to build up their themes in such a way that their selected forms are undividable from the way in which they see women and society in general. In each case, the chosen form reflects the experiences of the woman. Finally, Sutherlands plays time after time build up analogies between the role playing of the theatre and sexual role playing in society. Therefore, while the African woman writers achievement facilitates her removal from African society, it restructures her as an event in western literature in Africa. The point here is that separating the African woman from African society is at odds with African ways of knowing. Knowledgeable or not, African men, like other men from different societies, represent neither an independent cultural nor national union. Although it is not necessary that men and women always be in agreement on all fronts, Africas development is coextensive with the acknowledgment of the existence of a familiar base, shared experiences and heritage. It is vital to affirm here that western feminism posits a different viewpoint, not a separate society, culture, politics and so on, from western male controlled customs. In general, western feminism assumes the legitimacy of woman-as-woman as it redefines western knowledge bases while validating womens constructive partaking. This fact is essential to the different approaches that notify western white feminisms and the freedom struggles of women of color in general and African women scholars in particular. Most ingenious writers in postcolonial Africa presuppose the influence of an African narrative belief and customs in their works. Although depiction of the African womans experiences confirm her position and authority within African conception of the world, it has been difficult to define the utility of these associations in the scripto-centric, new indulgence. Colonialisms premature spotlight on writing as a male-dominated activity created hindrances for the education of women and the early investigation of women-centered ways of knowing in the African awareness. This made it complicated to comprehend womens progression in the changing society. African feminism explores the writing of the African woman on the continent and the diaspora. Recognizing her circumscription in many areas of modern-day understanding, it emphasizes the requirement for an expansion of limitations so as to assist justification of her partaking as woman-as-woman. African feminism asserts the African womans nar rative and viewpoints as routes to understanding her experiences. African feminism more often than not adopts a descriptive standpoint and emphasizes understanding of African cultures and social systems. Insisting on a different way of reading Africas written narratives, it presupposes that the African story in a European language has more than one level of meaning. Also, in accordance to writers in other parts of the world, the place of the African writer is unique on the basis of language and history. This for the first time we have a group of writers dedicated to polarity of audience. Interpretations by the African feminist school include general and encircling views and close readings of selected texts. This school of thought deliberately take concepts of African womanhood retained in African American culture from slavery to the present as well as the unlike meanings of African womanhood inside the conventional African knowledge base. African feminism insists on sustained application of concepts which uphold a structure of knowledge that assumed her visibility essential for effective partaking. Refusing to be downgraded to the position of a friendly other who endorses her own suppression, African feminism emphasizes that current self-articulation reinvigorates a sense of completeness embedded in a viable past. Although it is in accordance with activist feminism on the requirement of developing an objective African feminist archetype, it rejects its challenging strategies that limit investigation of pre-colonial Africas constructions of knowledge to gender conflicts. In this view, references to sensible adjustments made by women of African descent using the African awareness in times of inconsistency are useful. For example, this school sees women like Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth as resisting and combating disabling epitomes through the use of ingenious applications of African customary assertions of womens intrinsic freedoms. The concept of pleasant cohabitation is supposed at the core of the African knowledge base. For the modern African woman working inside unrecognized African and western systems of knowledge, the potential of this school of thought are never-ending. As Wa Thiongo notes early in his career, the African womans magnificence in the tribe must foremost be recognized by herself rather than by an unknown, conflicting worldview. Clearly, persuasive African literary significant and logical strategies should have the potential to accept and practice Africas right to an all-inclusive tradition. This does not prohibit learning from and borrowing from other cultures. But it requires continuous revisions of multi-dimensional research programmers in hunt of fundamental ideals and significant change. Nwaononaku even though the African feminist approach remains perceptive to issues that are significant to the present-day African woman, it does not go far enough in its exploration. This is because it usually appraises her losses and announces her beauty through textual exploration of well-known postures like the actuality of grandmother roles or the extensive family in African societies. This approach creates inkling that in-depth explanations and analysis are not essential for developing feasible methodical strategies when researching African womens life and literature. To a certain degree, this attribute of African feminism creates false universalisms, which in turn give rise to difficulty in the commencement of new analytical frameworks to advance research and creativity using such explanations. While African feminist scholarship is brilliant, it principally mirror existing understanding and emphasizes textual readings. This work instigates a new approach to the understanding of the African experience by increasing the scope of relevant aspects of public structure. Working from the postulation that prior to the African womans voice was silenced through slavery and colonialism; it was heard within societal structure that assumed womens partaking as important to normal cultural practice. For example, Achebes Things Fall Apart is a priestess and a healer whose responsibility allows her have power over of spaces that the fearless Okonkwo is precautious about entering. Certain of these spaces and the societal situation on a moonlit night, she runs through the town with a sick Ezimma on her back. All through Chielos race that night, her voice calls out compliments to distinguished community personages and agbala. Suggestive of only self-confidence and reliance on a rich ideological resource base, Chielos voice shows no hint of subjugation or concealed womanhood. The fact that Ezimma recuperate after the encounter with Chielo also articulate about Chielos power in agbala. Important to the re-envisioning of African womanhood here is the inconsistency of agbala. Always in alliance with women, agbala is a prophesy, a force ahead of human understanding and might. But it is also the name given to a man without a title (Achebe 1958). The brave Okonkwo quiver in the attendance of the former and despise the latter. Agbala is an early hint of the womans location in a traditional Igbo. Embedded in Igbo narrative customs, Nwapa does not refer straightforwardly to the Igbo practice of multi-voicing. Like Achebe, Nwapa also employ and investigate the concept of duality-in-existence. Within the practice of duality in which all has its contrary and accompaniment, Nwapa, the narrator, names everything at least twice. To start with, the traditional narrative mode presupposes that narrative land exists as an accompaniment to the world of the living. It is observed as an equivalent universe whose world revolves in ways analogous to the world of the narrator and her/his audience. Through narratives, society members name the contents of Spirit-land, the complement of the world of the living. Through imagery and reference, the narrator provides the way to and the proximity with Spirit-land. These references and symbols are vital to the relationship with the communitys ancestors and are essential to African life and living. The woman-as-mother is the most important narrator to the child. She teaches the child about the societys ways of understanding and perception. In this way, the woman-as-mother happens to important to the essential development and continuation of the community. Chielo, racing through the town with Ezimma on her back symbolizes this role and function. There is no male counterpart to this role of the priestess in African life. And, Okonkwo must chase later and stay in the shadows as woman- as-priestess and agbala renegotiate the childs wellbeing and persistence. Important here is the fact that the procedures of ritual and negotiation are rooted in narrative tradition and practice. Like Achebe, Nwapa also makes use of this association in Efuru in which the most important characters have praise names the complement of given names. According to Achebe names mirror the situation of ones birth and family conditions. Nwapas manifestation of Efuru in her variety of roles and functions model customary narrative practices and modes. On the foremost and most obvious level is Efuru (the lost one), the unproductive woman. As an infertile woman, this character challenges the notion of Nneka Mother-is-Supreme a notion Achebe introduces in his investigation of Okonkwos exile in Mbanta, his mothers home of birth. Agreeing with Achebes expression of duality-in-existence: Wherever something stands, something else will also stand beside it, Nwapa present a character whose incapacity to be physically fertile will create a major quandary expressed by Nneka: what happens when the woman is devoid of child? Do women with no children share in the authority that motherhood endows on mothers in the society? By the storys end, Nwapa crack the puzzle by presenting Ugwuta-Igbo as a complement to barrenness Uhamiri, the woman of the lake. For the disabled condition of unproductiveness, the beautiful Uhamiris plentiful wealth provides an differing and necessary complement. Efurus wealth makes available to her alternate opportunity to motherhood. She utilizes it to take care of Ogea, Ogeas parents and others in the society who would else have no access to the compassionate interventions associated with motherhood. Budding from the complicated web of relationships is an Efuru whose praise name, Nwaononaku (the one who dwells in wealth), is noticeable in an economically productive life. Efurus unproblematic profits in the marketplace mirror an ideologically rich resource base, which the society supports using the Uhamiri metaphor. Understanding womanhood as an expansive structure for explaining womens role in most African communities hence require an epistemological specificity and historical authenticity of African ways of knowing. An approach that belongs intrinsically from Igbo (African) thought, it permits for logical depth whether or not the woman is organically and/or economically prolific. By exploring fundamentally paired-outcomes within the epistemological dissertation, it becomes possible to elucidate the need for womens participation. In Nwapas Efuru ,for example, Nwosu and Nwabata look for out Efuru who agrees to teach and take care of their daughter, Ogea. Eventually, Efuru also start to take care of Nwosu and Nwabata. Since Nwosu is Efurus sister, prevalent African customs allow both to recreate Ogea as Efurus maid as a way to lessen despair and anguish for Nwosu who has lost his yams to flood. Nwapas narrative project is decisively based on Igbo notion and practice of dialogue and rhetoric. As an alternative for proverbs, she uses dialogue to re-examine the issue of male death as an accepted form of payment for any death asserting the dominance of a mutual search for life. Deriving her visualization from Igbo narrative customs, she stresses the scope to which Ikemefunas death by Okonkwos hand is incoherent not only with Okonkwos character but with Ugwuta (Igbo) thought and character. Structurally, Ogeas arrival in Efurus family is introduced using a framework that is analogous to that which presents the arrival of Ikemefuna to Okonkwos household. This construction signals Nwapas decisive use of Igbo rhetorical modes to employ Achebes presentation of the use of male death

Is The African American Family Slowly Disintegrating? Essay -- Family

Is The African American Family Slowly Disintegrating? America, as we know it today, is composed of an eclectic mix of cultures including African, Asian, Hispanic, Native American as well as diverse European cultures. These cultures have amalgamated in some ways, but in other ways certain cultures have established themselves as dominant, immensely contributing to the paradigm shifts in the American culture. The English language, for example, is the language that is prevalently spoken in the United States today; it is traditionally associated with the Yankees who have European descent. Of particular interest in this research, however, is the African component of American culture. Why, for example, don’t Americans speak Portuguese, the language that most of the African Slaves were familiar with? After their emancipation, were the black slaves incapable of propagating their own culture to their children and their children’s children? Are they an inferior race? Or are they simply unmotivated and unwilling to rise above their de spondency? These are some of the questions that this research attempts to investigate. It is a well known fact that social, economic and political ills continue to beset the African American family in all walks of their lives. They constantly experience racial discrimination, unemployment, and various forms of violence. Numerous reports indicate blacks as the perpetrator of crimes. They are faced by issues such as welfare, illegitimacy, a large number of children and, the resulting cycle of poverty (Newman, 150). The figures and the statistics speak for themselves making us all too aware about the plight of the blacks in America. In light of all this, a pertinent question arising from this would be â€Å"when ... ...se trap, it won’t matter whether you are black or white. People will buy it.† Secondly, a concerted effort by all Americans should be put in place to uplift the blacks socially, economically and politically by affording them equal opportunity, completely stamping out racism in the community and by fostering the learning of young African Americans. Without this, the rich will get richer while the poor will get poorer, meaning that any economic development will be nullified by an increasing crime rate and the society will, as a result, remain stagnant. Sources: Newman, D.M. 1958, 2002. â€Å"Sociology of Families.† Thousand Oaks, California: Pine Forge Press, C2002. Wikepidia Encyclopedia: http://www.fact-index.com/s/sl/slavery.html Father John Hardenbrook.The Christian activist, â€Å"A Journal of Orthodox Opinion†: http://www.thechristianactivist.com/vo9/V9Maction Is The African American Family Slowly Disintegrating? Essay -- Family Is The African American Family Slowly Disintegrating? America, as we know it today, is composed of an eclectic mix of cultures including African, Asian, Hispanic, Native American as well as diverse European cultures. These cultures have amalgamated in some ways, but in other ways certain cultures have established themselves as dominant, immensely contributing to the paradigm shifts in the American culture. The English language, for example, is the language that is prevalently spoken in the United States today; it is traditionally associated with the Yankees who have European descent. Of particular interest in this research, however, is the African component of American culture. Why, for example, don’t Americans speak Portuguese, the language that most of the African Slaves were familiar with? After their emancipation, were the black slaves incapable of propagating their own culture to their children and their children’s children? Are they an inferior race? Or are they simply unmotivated and unwilling to rise above their de spondency? These are some of the questions that this research attempts to investigate. It is a well known fact that social, economic and political ills continue to beset the African American family in all walks of their lives. They constantly experience racial discrimination, unemployment, and various forms of violence. Numerous reports indicate blacks as the perpetrator of crimes. They are faced by issues such as welfare, illegitimacy, a large number of children and, the resulting cycle of poverty (Newman, 150). The figures and the statistics speak for themselves making us all too aware about the plight of the blacks in America. In light of all this, a pertinent question arising from this would be â€Å"when ... ...se trap, it won’t matter whether you are black or white. People will buy it.† Secondly, a concerted effort by all Americans should be put in place to uplift the blacks socially, economically and politically by affording them equal opportunity, completely stamping out racism in the community and by fostering the learning of young African Americans. Without this, the rich will get richer while the poor will get poorer, meaning that any economic development will be nullified by an increasing crime rate and the society will, as a result, remain stagnant. Sources: Newman, D.M. 1958, 2002. â€Å"Sociology of Families.† Thousand Oaks, California: Pine Forge Press, C2002. Wikepidia Encyclopedia: http://www.fact-index.com/s/sl/slavery.html Father John Hardenbrook.The Christian activist, â€Å"A Journal of Orthodox Opinion†: http://www.thechristianactivist.com/vo9/V9Maction

Susan Glaspells Trifles - The Sweetness of Revenge :: Trifles Essays

Sweetness of Revenge    Susan Glaspell’s play, Trifles, seems to describe the ultimate women’s suffrage story. No longer will men have an upper hand against women after reading this story. Cleverness will be the key to retaining power from the men in this story. The one thing that woman are criticized for, the idea that women tend to look at the ‘little picture’ instead of the ‘whole picture’, will be there path to victory. Two stories of revenge are told in this story, the revenge of suppression and revenge of being portrayed as ‘unsophisticated, unintelligent’ women. First we have the story of Mrs. Wright and the struggles with her husband, John. Married women throughout history have been portrayed and played the role as being inferior to the husband in marriage. This seems to be the case with Mrs. Wright. Even though John’s public image was somewhat respectable, it was obvious that behind close doors the story was different. There is evidence of abuse in this marriage. First, the discovery of the broken door leads me to conclude that John was very physical and anguished. Second, it is assumed that Mrs. Wrights husband had broke her canary’s neck. The canary, which of course had to be caged, was represented as the old Minnie Foster herself. The canary is a beautiful, free spirited bird that had a sweet voice, as Minnie had at one time. This was the end of the line and ‘Minnie Foster’ was about to be reborn. She would stand up for all those abused and suppressed house wives across the world and makes the first ‘final’ decision she had ever been allowed to make. The bird’s cage was her jail. The bird’s death was her freedom for the fate of the bird was the fate of her husband. John was discovered with a rope tied around his neck, the freedom of a women who could no longer be held down. This was the first implementation of women’s power in the story. The women at Mrs. Wrigh t’s home played an important role in the story as well. The ‘professional’ detectives were busy about the house finding clues to indict Mrs. Wright in the murder case. They ridiculed the women in the house by ‘putting them in their place’ as typical ladies, so worried about small things and useless ordeals. Mrs. Hale noted the stitches in the quilt to be erratically stitched as if something were wrong.

The Northern Spotted Owl Controversy :: essays research papers

The Northern Spotted Owl Controversy – Jobs Vs Environmental Protection Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The mere mention of the creature’s name brings shudders to loggers and some local inhabitants, fear over its existence has incited rallies, garnered the attention of three government agencies, and caused people to tie themselves to trees. On April 2, 1993, President Bill Clinton embarked on a quest to settle a long-standing battle. The environmentalists on one side, and their attempts to protect natural resources, and the timber industry’s desire for the same on the other. Unemployment and economic devastation was said to surely follow, due to the loss of timber industry jobs. No trees were allowed to be cut within 70 acres of The Northern Spotted Owl’s nest. Other laws protected trees in a 2,000-acre circle around the birds. Listed as â€Å"threatened† under the Endangered Species Act, the Northern Spotted Owl has inadvertently landed in the in middle of the complicated debate over logging in the Pacific Northwest. Under the Act, logging of many old-growth forests has been suspended to protect the bird and its remaining habitat. Survival of the Northern Spotted Owl   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Northern Spotted Owl can only live in old growth environment, it is considered an â€Å"indicator species†: The health of the Northern Spotted Owl population indicates the health of the old-growth forest ecosystem. An individual Northern Spotted Owl needs more than 3,000 acres of old growth to survive, because of its scarce food supply. The Northern Spotted Owl is found in the cool, moist woodlands on the Pacific Northwest. The habitat of the Northern Spotted Owl can be described as trees relatively large in diameter in the stand, multi-layered canopy, large tall live trees with cavities, broken tops, mistletoe, or platforms of branches capable of holding accumulated organic matter suitable for use as a nest, dead standing trees and fallen decayed trees to support abundant populations of prey species, especially northern flying squirrels and woodrats. The Timber Industry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In May 1991, Federal District Judge William Dwyer issued a landmark decision finding that the Forest Service had violated the National Forest Management Act by failing to implement an acceptable management plan for the northern spotted owl. His decision forbade timber sales across the spotted owl region until the Forest Service implemented an acceptable plan. An injunction blocking timber sales in Northern Spotted Owl habitat affected 17 national forests in Washington, Oregon and Northern California.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The consequences for the rural economy in many areas of the Pacific Northwest were devastating.

Imperialism of United States in the Philippines

After its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. On February 4, 1899, just two days before the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, fighting broke out between American forces and Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo who sought independence rather than a change in colonial rulers.The ensuing Philippine-American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease. The decision by U.S. policymakers to annex the Philippines was not without domestic controversy. Americans who advocated annexation evinced a variety of motivations: desire for commercial opportunities in Asia, concern that the Filipinos were incapable of self-rule, and fear that if the United States did not take control of the islands, another power (such as Germany or Japan) might do so.Meanwhile, American opposition to U.S. colonial rule of the Philippines came in many forms, ranging from those who thought it morally wrong for the United States to be engaged in colonialism, to those who feared that annexation might eventually permit the non-white Filipinos to have a role in American national government. Others were wholly unconcerned about the moral or racial implications of imperialism and sought only to oppose the policies of President William McKinley’s administration.After the Spanish-American War, while the American public and politicians debated the annexation question, Filipino revolutionaries under Aguinaldo seized control of most of the Philippines’ main island of Luzon and proclaimed the establishment of the independent Philippine Republic. When it became clear that U.S. forces were intent on imposing American colonial control over the islands, the early clashes between the two sides in 1899 swelled into an all-out war. Americans tended to refer to the ensuing conflict as an â€Å"insurrection† rather than acknowledge the Filipinos’ contention that they were fighting to ward off a foreign invader.

Cultural Democracy

Cultural democracy – Summary This is the summary of the conference or debate between the two speakers Mr. Jerry Sambuaga and Mr. Lee Nathanael Santoso, discussing the topic of Cultural Democracy. The first topic that is discussed was on the ideal form of democracy. Mr. Jerry said that the ideal form of democracy is the one that prioritize freedom, to have liberalism implemented, which will eventually lead to individualism. In his opinion liberalism should be implemented in all aspects, such as in politics and economy.The examples of liberalism in politics are presidential election or parties, whereas the example of liberalism in economy is human rights. The freedom of speech, freedom to express opinions, since 1998, is the key to liberalism (direct democracy). On the other hand, when discussing the topic on the ideal form of democracy, Mr. Nathanael raises up the question â€Å"Whether democracy is universal or locally? † as his comeback. People now have human rights, t he right to choose what they think democracy is. He said that in Singapore the government plays a larger role compared than the role of freedom of speech (representative democracy).Mr. jerry said that democracy is invented in the west, and the democracy in Indonesia is still very fragile, there are aspects that have not yet been touched such as civil society, law enforcement, etc. There is a statement that Mr. Jerry gave that Mr. Nathanael also agrees on, and that is â€Å"Democracy is not a destination but a goal†. Mr. Nathanael added that democracy indeed is a mean or a goal, and the goal is not democracy but to make sure that every people have basic necessities (security, etc). Mr.Nathanael asked a rhetorical question, † which political system that can guarantee their country to be flexible enough to attain political grid lock? † From his point of view, Singapore is the closest one that has been able to achieve this. The second topic that the moderator discusse d was, â€Å"Should a country this big (Indonesia) use a federal system or a unitary system? † Mr. Nathanael said that our country should adopt a mix of the two systems. From Mr. jerry's point of view, Indonesia should use a federal system, because Indonesia is very diverse, if we force something it can cause damages. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr.Jerry's statement by saying that Singapore also has diversity, but they know how to harmonized the different point of views, opinions, etc. He said, â€Å"Minorities and other ethnicity receive the right to take part, to give a voice. † Mr. Jerry debated Mr. Nathanael’s statement by saying that Singapore has an oppressive or an authoritarian system, instead of having a freedom of speech. â€Å"Singapore has a good system but can it last with that system? Indonesia may not yet be successful now, but with the existence of liberty, and opportunity given for people to be able to govern, may lead Indonesia to become a developed country. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr. Jerry’s statement saying, â€Å"The authoritarian system in Singapore is different compared to China, in Singapore the law is clear, you can have a say on criticizing the government, but you must have facts to support it. Mr. Jerry’s opinion is that our country is best suited with having a little number parties, because a large number of parties slows down decision making, and does nut suit the presidential system. While Mr. Nathanael said that democracy is not about political parties, part of government,  it is about achieving national interests.He said that, â€Å"only the parties with money that can win (in indo), but in Singapore if you have a good vision you will be heard†. â€Å"Should democracy control freedom? † Mr. Jerry said that one’s freedom of expression could violate another's freedom of expression. Freedom should be controlled but not limited. Democracy may not be the best system, but it is stil l better to educate the people to participate. He added, â€Å"Freedom of rights of Singapore must be developed. † Mr. Nathanael commented, â€Å"Singapore are convinced that this is the system for them, the issue is Singapore’s system should be more relevant. Singapore’s human rights can’t be compared with Indonesia’s priority of economic prosperity. Cultural Democracy Critical Analysis Cultural Democracy is the term for a philosophy or policy emphasizing pluralism, participation, and equity within and between cultures. Which consists of a set of related commitments such as, protecting and promoting cultural diversity, and the right to culture for everyone in our society and around the world;? encouraging active participation in community cultural life;? enabling people to participate in policy decisions that affect the quality of our cultural lives; and ? ssuring fair and equitable access to cultural resources and support. There are three basic types of democracy: Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented, and Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule' wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.In my opinion, I think the ideal form of democracy should be the one where liberalism is highly considered, but where there is also a balance in government involvement. Because, as the people, we know what our country needs most, but with the diversity that our country possess, and with the different opinions that people have, there should be a representative democracy that can represent the people and chooses the best decisions for the people and the country. Should democracy control freedom?I think that freedom is both a positive and a negative think, if not controlled properly. People have different opinions, and if all of them have the freedom of speech, then there will be a moment where their freedom of expression will clash with others’ freedom of expression. That is why that freedom should also be controlled to a point of degree where people would still have the freedom of speech. The main reason why Indonesia has not been able to reach its full potential is because we have weak institutions, hence weak democracy.Indonesia should learn the complexity that is democracy, the many aspects that is consists of such as  legal certainty, transparency, freedom, etc. The one thing that Indonesia should be able to do to improve as a country is by knowing how to prioritize. Of course, in democracy alone there are many aspects that it consists of, and to manage this by knowing which to prioritize first, to the extent where all the aspects will be covered one by one. Indonesia should be consistent in following or running a liberal system.Of course, there are processes that need to be done; we need to fight for the freedom of the economy. The best solution is to have a modification based on the aspiration of the people. We should be able to learn, and adopt all the good elements that each country possesses, mix them up and implement them as our democratic system. By: Pamela Lemmuela (04320120057) FISIP/HI/2012 RESEARCH : ? Democracy? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A woman casts her vote in the second round of the French presidential election of 2007 Part of the Politics series|Democracy| History  Ã‚ · Outline| Basic forms| * Direct * Representative| Variants| * Anticipatory * Consensus * Deliberative * Demarchy * Economic * Electronic * Grassroots * Illiberal * Inclusive * Liberal * Non-partisan * Ochlocracy * Participatory * Radical * Religious * Representative direct * Sociocracy * Soviet * Totalitarian * Other| Politics portal| * v t e| Part of the Polit ics series| Basic forms ofgovernment| Power structure| * Confederal * Federal * Hegemony * Imperial * Unitary| Power source| Democracy * Direct * Representative * Other * Monarchy * Absolute * Constitutional * Oligarchy * Aristocracy * Meritocracy * Military junta * Plutocracy * Stratocracy * Technocracy * Timocracy * Other * Anarchy * Authoritarianism * Autocracy * Anocracy * Despotism * Dictatorship * Kritarchy * Republic * Theocracy * Totalitarianism| List of forms of government| Politics portal| * v t e|Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people to participate equally—either directly or through elected representatives—in the proposal, development, and creation of laws. It encompasses social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-determination. The term originates from the Greek (demokratia) â€Å"rule of th e people†,[1] which was coined from demos) â€Å"people† and (kratos) â€Å"power† in the 5th century BCE to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens; the term is an antonym to â€Å"rule of an elite†. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents. A democratic government contrasts to forms of government where power is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy or aristocracy.Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution. [2] Several variants of democracy exist, but there ar e two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of citizens executes its will. One form of emocracy is direct democracy, in which citizens have direct and active participation in the decision making of the government. In most modern democracies, the whole body of citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called representative democracy. The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages, the Age of Enlightenment, and the American and French Revolutions. [3] Contents   [hide]   * 1 Definition * 2 History * 2. Ancient origins * 2. 2 Middle Ages * 2. 3 Modern era * 3 Countries * 4 Types * 4. 1 Basic forms * 4. 2 Variants * 4. 3 Non-governmental * 5 Theory * 5. 1 Aristotle * 5. 2 Rationale * 5. 3 Ideal forms * 5. 4 Practice * 5. 5 Criticism * 6 Development * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 External links| [edit] Defini tion While there is no universally accepted definition of â€Å"democracy,†[4] equality and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times. 5] These principles are reflected in all citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are generally protected by a constitution. [6][7] One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: 1) upward control, i. e. overeignty residing at the lowest levels of authority, 2) political equality, and 3) social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. [8] The term â€Å"democracy† is sometimes used as shorthand for liberal democracy, which is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as political pluralism; equality before the law; the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances; due process; civil liberties; human rights; and lements of civil society outside the government. [citation needed] In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty (while maintaining judicial independence). [citation needed] In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organizations. Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. by whom? ] Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the â₠¬Å"tyranny of the majority† in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of an â€Å"ideal† representative democracy is competitive elections that are fair both substantively[9] and procedurally. [10] Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered to be essential rights that allow citizens to be adequately informed and able to vote according to their own interests. 11][12] It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of individuals to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. [13] With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of the people, democracy can also be characterized as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. [14] While democracy is often equated with the republic an form of government, the term â€Å"republic† classically has encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. 15][16] [edit] History Main article: History of democracy [edit] Ancient origins See also: Athenian democracy Cleisthenes, â€Å"father of Athenian democracy†, modern bust. The term â€Å"democracy† first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens. [17][18] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508-507 BCE. Cleisthenes is referred to as â€Å"the father of Athenian democracy. [19] Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices,[20] and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. [21] All citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city st ate. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners ( metoikoi), and males under 20 years old. [citation needed] Of the estimated 200,000 to 400,000 inhabitants of Athens, there were between 30,000 and 60,000 citizens. citation needed] The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns. [citation needed] Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also directest in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. 22] Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for â€Å"rights†[23]), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. [24] Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to certain aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives.The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of gerrymandering, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. [25] However, many notable exceptions did occur. [citation needed] [edit] Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small amount of the population, the election of Gopala in Bengal region of Indian Subcontinent (within a aste system), the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (10% of population), the Althing in Iceland, the Logting in the Faero e Islands, certain medieval Italian city-states such as Venice, the tuatha system in early medieval Ireland, the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia, Scandinavian Things, The States in Tirol and Switzerland and the autonomous merchant city of Sakai in the 16th century in Japan. However, participation was often restricted to a minority, and so may be better classified as oligarchy.Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic. A little closer to modern democracy were the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th–17th centuries: Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The highest post – the Hetman – was elected by the representatives from the country's districts.Magna Carta, 1215, England The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta, which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered – and implicitly supported what became English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265.However only a small minority actually had a voice; Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population, (less than 3% as late as 1780[26]), and the power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). The power of Parliament increased in stages over the succeeding centuries. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the English Bill of Rights of 1689 was enacted, which codified certain rights and increased the influence of Parliament. 26] The franchise was slowly increased and Parliament gradually gaine d more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead. [27] As the franchise was increased, it also was made more uniform, as many so-called rotten boroughs, with a handful of voters electing a Member of Parliament, were eliminated in the Reform Act of 1832. In North America, the English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose governance was democratic and which contributed to the democratic development of the United States. 28] [edit] Modern era [edit] 18th and 19th centuries The first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic constitution was the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755. This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and even allowed for female suffrage, something that was granted in other democracies only by the 20th century. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. [29]The establishment of universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy. Universal male suffrage was definitely established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. [30] In 1848, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. [31] Although not described as a democracy by the founding fathers, the United States founders also shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principle of natural freedom and equality. 32] The United States Constitution, adopted in 1788, provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some. In the colonial period before 1776, and for some time after, often only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, most free black people and most women were not extended the franchise. On the American frontier, democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality. 33] However, slavery was a social and economic institution, particularly in eleven states in the American South, such that a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality. In the 1860 United States Census the slave population in the United States had grown to four million,[34] and in Reconstruction after the Civil War (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citizens with (in the case of men) a nominal right to vote.Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968) gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. [35][36] [edit] 20th and 21st centuries The number of nations 1800–2003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy. 20th cent ury transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive â€Å"waves of democracy,† variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, religious and economic circumstances.World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democracy flourished, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic regimes in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. 37] World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The democratization of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed[38]), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the la ter theory of regime change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet bloc. The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. 39] By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the former colonies. ) A subsequent wave of democratization brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s).This was followed by nations in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratization and liberalization of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the European Union. Some researchers consider that contemporary Russia is not a true democracy and instead resembles a form of dictatorship. 40] The Economist's Democracy Index as published in December 2011, with greener colours representing more democratic countries and clearly authoritarian countries in dark red. The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalization include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia.According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). [41] According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58. 2 percent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i. e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population. [42] In 2010 the United Nations declared September 15 the International Day of Democracy. 43] [edit] Countries The following countries are categorized by the Democracy Index 2011 as Full democracy:[44] 1. Norway? 2. Iceland? 3. Denmark? 4. Sweden? 5. New Zealand   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6. Australia? 7. Switzerland? 8. Canada? 9. Finland? 10. Netherlands   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  | 11. Luxembourg   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 12. Ireland? 13. Austria? 14. Germany? 15. Malta| 16. Czech Republic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 17. Uruguay? 18. United Kingdom? 19. United States? 20. Costa Rica| 21. Japan? 22. South Korea? 23. Belgium? 24. Mauritius? 25.Spain| The Index assigns 53 countries to the next category, Flawed democracy: Argentina, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Estonia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Latvia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malaysia, Mali, India, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Namibia, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Zambia[44] [edit]Types See also: List of types of democracy Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. [45][46] However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its own favor, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. 47][48][49] World's states colored by form of government as of 20111 Presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Semi-presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Single-party republics|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Absolute monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Military dictatorships|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Republics with an executive president dependent on a parliament|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Countries which do not fit any of the above systems| | This map was complied according to the Wikipedia list of countries by system of government. See there for sources. 2Several states constitutionally deemed to be multiparty republics are broadly described by outsiders as authoritarian states. This map presents only the de jure form of government, and not the de facto degree of democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. [edit] Basic forms [edit] DirectMain article: Direct democracy Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than merely a procedural issue. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: Landsgemeinde of the canton of Appenzell Innerr hoden, example for direct democracy in Switzerland 1. Change constitutional laws, 2. Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws, 3.Give binding orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term, or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise. Of the three measures mentioned, most operate in developed democracies today. This is part of a gradual shift towards direct democracies. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level in many countries, though these systems often coexist with representative assemblies. Usually, this includes equal (and more or less direct) participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law. [14] [edit]Representative Main article: Representative democracy Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. [50] The most c ommon mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two.Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. [edit] Parliamentary Main article: Parliamentary system Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule' wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegat ion to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. [51][52][53][54][55] Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal. 56] In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favor with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. [edit] Presidential Main article: Presidential system Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections.The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and aren’t easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, the members of which are specifically appointed by the president himself. [56] The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily.This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas. [56] A semi-presidential system is a system of demo cracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. 56] [edit] Constitutional Main article: Constitutional democracy A constitutional democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).In a constitutional democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can â€Å"vote with their feet† or â€Å"vote with their dollars†, resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many â€Å"powers† associated with formal government elsewhere. [edit] Hybrid Some modern democracies that are predominately representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic.These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies[57] or semi-direct democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U. S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. Although managed by a representative legislative body, Switzerland allows for initiatives and referendums at both the local and federal levels. In the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum.The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. [citation needed] In the United States, no mechanisms of direct democrac y exists at the federal level, but over half of the states and many localities provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called â€Å"ballot measures†, â€Å"ballot questions† or â€Å"propositions†), and the vast majority of states allow for referendums.Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. [58] In New England Town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a state government which is representative. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have an opportunity to speak and by heard on political matters. 59] [edit] Variants [edit] Republic Main article: Republicanism In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a go vernment chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. [60] The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. 61] The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a Constitution enshrining basic rights; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very struc ture.What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,[62] was that the government be â€Å"bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. † As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U. S. constitution, a woman asked him â€Å"Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy? â€Å". He replied â€Å"A republic—if you can keep it. â€Å"[63] Queen Elizabeth II, a constitutional monarch. [edit] Constitutional monarchy Main article: constitutional monarchyInitially after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elite upper chamber, the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures, or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan) turned powerful mon archs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles.Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). [edit] Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples.Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory democracy and workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called â€Å"liberal democracy†, which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets).This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism) Democracy cannot consist solely of elections that are nearly always fictitious and managed by rich landowners and professional politicians. —Che Guevara,  Speech, Uruguay, 1961[64] [edit] Anarchist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy.Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. [65] However, anar cho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,[66] and says â€Å"majority rule† is consistent with anarchism. [67] Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. 68] Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for â€Å"a better government†[69] and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent. [edit] Demarchy Main article: Demarchy Sometimes called â€Å"democracy without elections†, demarchy uses sortition to choose decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impart ial than an elected official.The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. [edit] Consensus Main article: Consensus democracy Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. [edit] Supranational Qualified majority voting is designed by the Treaty of Rome to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states.This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the â€Å"individuals† being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many others. European Parliament members are democraticall y directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a supranational democratic institution. [edit] Non-governmental Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations.Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders on the principle of one share, one vote. [edit] Theory A marble statue of Aristotle. [edit] Aristotle Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). 70][71] For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn; for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, †¦.And one is for a man to live as he likes; for they say that this is the function of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. —Aristotle,  Politics 1317b (Book 6, Part II) [edit] Rationale Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of the fundamental rationale for democracy: aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy, and radical democracy. [72] [edit] Aggregative The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the de mocratic processes is to solicit citizens’ preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt.Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not â€Å"rule† because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded.Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. [73] Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vot e directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites.Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter– with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments.Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy. [74] Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy.First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. [75] Some[who? ] see a problem with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like campaign finance reform. Some[who? ] may see it as a problem that only voters decide policy, as opposed to a majority rule of the entire population.This can be used a s an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory voting or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. [edit] Deliberative Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregration of preferences that occurs in voting.Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. [76][77][78] If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. [edit] Radical Radical democracy is based o n the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society.Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes. [edit] Ideal forms [edit] Inclusive Main article: Inclusive Democracy Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i. . self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in â€Å"Towards An Inclusive Democracy† and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i. e. he assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker . Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in prin ciple, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates. [edit]